ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS: Was the East German sports doping programme mandated by the government?

QUESTION: Was the East German sports doping programme mandated by the government?

The doping programme of the German Democratic Republic (GDR, or East Germany) was a ­systematic, state-run effort to enhance the performance of the country’s athletes during the Cold War. The GDR sought to project international dominance, particularly over the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG or West Germany).

The programme began in the 1960s and was formalised under State Plan 14.25 in 1974. It was authorised by GDR sports minister Manfred Ewald, a former Hitler Youth ­member, and implemented by Dr Manfred Hoeppner, the state director of sports medicine.

Athletes were given steroids, especially Oral Turinabol, an anabolic steroid. These were administered to male and female athletes, including teenagers, without their full understanding or consent.

Ewald at the district court in Berlin on July 13 2000. He was charged for operating the doping programme to improve the performance of athletes

The results were remarkable. At the 1968 Mexico City Olympics, the small country of around 17 million collected nine gold medals. Four years later at Munich, the total was 20, and at Montreal in 1976 it was 40. The GDR had established itself as one of the most powerful sporting nations on Earth.

Anti-doping agencies were slow to catch up. It was 1977 before 20-year-old shot-putter Ilona Slupianek became the first GDR athlete to be caught. She received a paltry one-year ban and came back to win gold at the 1980 Moscow Olympics.

In 2000, officials including Ewald and Hoeppner were brought to trial accused of damaging the health of athletes.

Among those who testified was Andreas Krieger, who, as female shot-putter Heidi Krieger, had won the European title in 1986 aged 21. Krieger described being given ‘blue pills’ by coaches, and, partly influenced by the effects of the drugs, underwent a sex change in 1997.

When sentencing came, it was ­lenient. In a Berlin court, Ewald and Hoeppner faced 142 counts apiece of being an accessory to ­causing bodily harm, but both received short ­suspended sentences.

The period continues to cast its shadow over world athletics, in particular in the figure of Marita Koch, an athlete who broke 30 world records while representing the former GDR. She still holds the 400m world record she set of 47.60 seconds in Canberra in 1985.

While Koch never failed a doping test and denies involvement, ­evidence that the GDR regime cheated has been presented beyond any reasonable doubt.

Marcus Allen, Chelmsford, Essex

QUESTION: Where does the phrase ‘on the fritz’ come from?

This is a synonym of ‘on the blink’ which originated in the U.S. but was popularised in Britain during the Second World War.

Its origin is uncertain but it is believed to be a reference to the well-known German nickname, probably alluding to imported ­German goods which had been ­considered shoddy. Fritz was short for Friedrich and was well known to Americans through the popular ­cartoon strip The Katzenjammer Kids, featuring Hans and Fritz.

The term benefited from being onomatopoeic, echoing the sound of a short circuit, a buzzing in electrical equipment.

Cath Franks, Cambridge

QUESTION: Why does Oman have so many enclaves and exclaves?

Oman’s enclaves and exclaves are a result of its complex historical, political and tribal dynamics. These territorial divisions stem from power struggles between Oman and neighbouring entities such as the United Arab Emirates (UAE).

One well-known example is Madha, an Omani exclave within the UAE. In the early 20th century, the tribes of the area had to choose ­allegiance between the Sultanate of Oman and various local rulers in what is now the UAE. The people of Madha chose Oman, resulting in it becoming an exclave surrounded by UAE territory. Bizarrely, however, this exclave itself contains a UAE village called Nawha, which proclaimed allegiance to Sharjah, one of the Emirates. Thus, Nawha is technically a counter-enclave.

The most prominent example of an Omani exclave is Musandam, a peninsula that forms the north-eastern point of the Arabian Peninsula, which guards the strategically important Strait of Hormuz and is separated from mainland Oman by UAE territory. Control of this area gives Oman influence over the vital maritime route through which much of the world’s oil passes.

Borders between Oman and the UAE were officially defined in 1969, but tribal loyalties, political negotiations and local power ­balances played a major role in creating today’s enclaves and exclaves.

Ian Holman, Liverpool